Clinical characteristics of inflammation and phases of inflammation

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Cellular components of cutaneous inflammation

Epidermis

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Dermis

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Epidermal and dermal cell–cell communication during inflammation

Endothelial cells, Selectins

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Endothelial adhesion molecules regulating leukocyte migration

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Cell–cell adhesion in the epidermis and dermis during inflammation

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Adhesion molecules on activated keratinocytes

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Endothelin 1

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Toll‐like receptors, Nucleotide binding site and leucine‐rich repeat proteins, Scavenger receptors, Mannose receptor and other C‐type lectins

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Cells regulating innate immunity

Natural killer cells

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• 279  Biron CA. Activation and function of natural killer cell responses during viral infections. Curr Opin Immunol 1997 Feb;9:24–34. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 280  Moore JP, Trkola A, Dragic T. Co‐receptors for HIV‐1 entry. Curr Opin Immunol 1997 Aug;9:551–62. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 283  Schwartzberg PL, Mueller KL, Qi H, Cannons JL. SLAM receptors and SAP influence lymphocyte interactions, development and function. Nat Rev Immunol 2009 Jan;9:39–46. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 284  De Benedetto A, Agnihothri R, McGirt LY, Bankova LG, Beck LA. Atopic dermatitis: a disease caused by innate immune defects? J Invest Dermatol 2009 Jan;129:14–30. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 288  Smith SA, Kotwal GJ. Immune response to poxvirus infections in various animals. Crit Rev Microbiol 2002;28:149–85. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 289  Tivol EA, Borriello F, Schweitzer AN, Lynch WP, Bluestone JA, Sharpe AH. Loss of CTLA‐4 leads to massive lymphoproliferation and fatal multiorgan tissue destruction, revealing a critical negative regulatory role of CTLA‐4. Immunity 1995 Nov;3:541–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 290  Waterhouse P, Penninger JM, Timms E, et al. Lymphoproliferative disorders with early lethality in mice deficient in Ctla‐4. Science 1995 Nov 10;270:985–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Polymorphonuclear granulocytes

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• 294  Weiss SJ. Tissue destruction by neutrophils. N Engl J Med 1989 Feb 9;320:365–76. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 297  Kollef MH, Micek ST. Methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus: a new ­community‐acquired pathogen? Curr Opin Infect Dis 2006 Apr;19:161–8. Pubmed link
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• 300  Lorant DE, Topham MK, Whatley RE, et al. Inflammatory roles of P‐selectin. J Clin Invest 1993 Aug;92:559–70. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 301  Ley K. Integration of inflammatory signals by rolling neutrophils. Immunol Rev 2002 Aug;186:8–18. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 303  Baehner RL. In: Bellanti JA, Dayton DH, eds. Phagocytic Cell in Host Resistance. New York: Raven Press 1975:173.
• 304  Segal AW, Peters TJ. Characterisation of the enzyme defect in chronic granulomatous disease. Lancet 1976 Jun 26;1:1363–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 305  Lekstrom‐Himes JA, Gallin JI. Immunodeficiency diseases caused by defects in phagocytes. N Engl J Med 2000 Dec 7;343:1703–14. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 307  Schleiffenbaum B, Moser R, Patarroyo M, Fehr J. The cell surface glycoprotein Mac‐1 (CD11b/CD18) mediates neutrophil adhesion and modulates degranulation independently of its quantitative cell surface expression. J Immunol 1989 May 15;142:3537–45. Pubmed link
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• 313  Barbosa MD, Nguyen QA, Tchernev VT, et al. Identification of the homologous beige and Chediak–Higashi syndrome genes. Nature 1996 Jul 18;382:262–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 314  Nagle DL, Karim MA, Woolf EA, et al. Identification and mutation analysis of the complete gene for Chediak–Higashi syndrome. Nat Genet 1996 Nov;14:307–11. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 315  Yamanaka R, Barlow C, Lekstrom‐Himes J, et al. Impaired granulopoiesis, myelodysplasia, and early lethality in CCAAT/enhancer binding protein epsilon‐deficient mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1997 Nov 25;94:13187–92. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 316  Lekstrom‐Himes J, Xanthopoulos KG. CCAAT/enhancer binding protein epsilon is critical for effective neutrophil‐mediated response to inflammatory challenge. Blood 1999 May 1;93:3096–105. Pubmed link
• 317  Shpacovitch V, Feld M, Bunnett NW, Steinhoff M. Protease‐activated receptors: novel PARtners in innate immunity. Trends Immunol 2007 Dec;28:541–50. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 318  Zaja‐Milatovic S, Richmond A. CXC chemokines and their receptors: a case for a significant biological role in cutaneous wound healing. Histol Histopathol 2008 Nov;23:1399–407. Pubmed link
• 319  Bryan SA, O'Connor BJ, Matti S, et al. Effects of recombinant human interleukin‐12 on eosinophils, airway hyper‐responsiveness, and the late asthmatic response. Lancet 2000 Dec 23–30;356:2149–53. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 321  Wardlaw AJ, Brightling C, Green R, Woltmann G, Pavord I. Eosinophils in asthma and other allergic diseases. Br Med Bull 2000;56:985–1003. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 322  Wardlaw AJ, Moqbel R, Kay AB. Eosinophils: biology and role in disease. Adv Immunol 1995;60:151–266. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 325  Haas N, Motel K, Czarnetzki BM. Comparative immunoreactivity of the eosinophil constituents MBP and ECP in different types of urticaria. Arch Dermatol Res 1995;287:180–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 327  Leiferman KM, Fujisawa T, Gray BH, Gleich GJ. Extracellular deposition of eosinophil and neutrophil granule proteins in the IgE‐mediated cutaneous late phase reaction. Lab Invest 1990 May;62:579–89. Pubmed link
• 328  Morita H, Yamamoto K, Kitano Y. Elevation of serum major basic protein in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Dermatol Sci 1995 May;9:165–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 329  Conroy MC, Adkinson NF Jr, lichtenstein LM. Measurement of IgE on human basophils: relation to serum IgE and anti‐IgE‐induced histamine release. J Immunol 1977 Apr;118:1317–21. Pubmed link
• 330  MacGlashan D Jr, Lichtenstein LM. Studies of antigen binding on human basophils. I. Antigen binding and functional consequences. J Immunol 1983 May;130:2330–6. Pubmed link
• 331  MacDonald SM. Human recombinant histamine‐releasing factor. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 1997 May–Jul;113:187–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 332  Okayama Y, Begishvili TB, Church MK. Comparison of mechanisms of IL‐3 induced histamine release and IL‐3 priming effect on human basophils. Clin Exp Allergy 1993 Nov;23:901–10. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 333  Grattan CE, Francis DM, Hide M, Greaves MW. Detection of circulating histamine releasing autoantibodies with functional properties of anti‐IgE in chronic urticaria. Clin Exp Allergy 1991 Nov;21:695–704. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 334  Warner JA, Freeland HS, MacGlashan DW Jr, Lichtenstein LM, Peters SP. Purified human basophils do not generate LTB4. Biochem Pharmacol 1987 Oct 1;36:3195–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 335  Brunner T, Heusser CH, Dahinden CA. Human peripheral blood basophils primed by interleukin 3 (IL‐3) produce IL‐4 in response to immunoglobulin E receptor stimulation. J Exp Med 1993 Mar 1;177:605–11. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 336  Li H, Sim TC, Alam R. IL‐13 released by and localized in human basophils. J Immunol 1996 Jun 15;156:4833–8. Pubmed link
• 337  Kepley CL, Craig SS, Schwartz LB. Identification and partial characterization of a unique marker for human basophils. J Immunol 1995 Jun 15;154:6548–55. Pubmed link
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• 339  Irani AM, Huang C, Xia HZ, et al. Immunohistochemical detection of human basophils in late‐phase skin reactions. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998 Mar;101:354–62. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Mast cells

• 340  Ehrlich P. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Anilinfärbungen und ihrer Verwendung in der mikroskopischen Technik. Arch Mikr Anat 1876;13:263–77. Cross Ref link
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• 346  Lowman MA, Benyon RC, Church MK. Characterization of neuropeptide‐induced histamine release from human dispersed skin mast cells. Br J Pharmacol 1988 Sep;95:121–30. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 356  Steinhoff M, Neisius U, Ikoma A, et al. Proteinase‐activated receptor‐2 mediates itch: a novel pathway for pruritus in human skin. J Neurosci 2003 Jul 16;23:6176–80. Pubmed link
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• 358  Dimson OG, Giudice GJ, Fu CL, et al. Identification of a potential effector function for IgE autoantibodies in the organ‐specific autoimmune disease bullous pemphigoid. J Invest Dermatol 2003 May;120:784–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 359  Walley AJ, Chavanas S, Moffatt MF, et al. Gene polymorphism in Netherton and common atopic disease. Nat Genet 2001 Oct;29:175–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 360  Coward WR, Okayama Y, Sagara H, Wilson SJ, Holgate ST, Church MK. NF‐kappa B and TNF‐alpha: a positive autocrine loop in human lung mast cells? J Immunol 2002 Nov 1;169:5287–93. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 362  Bradding P, Roberts JA, Britten KM, et al. Interleukin‐4, ‐5, and ‐6 and tumor necrosis factor‐alpha in normal and asthmatic airways: evidence for the human mast cell as a source of these cytokines. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1994 May;10:471–80. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 364  Von Stebut E. Immunology of cutaneous leishmaniasis: the role of mast cells, phagocytes and dendritic cells for protective immunity. Eur J Dermatol 2007 Mar–Apr;17:115–22. Pubmed link
• 365  Gschwandtner M, Purwar R, Wittmann M, et al. Histamine upregulates keratinocyte MMP‐9 production via the histamine H1 receptor. J Invest Dermatol 2008 Dec;128:2783–91. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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