HIV infection and AIDS

Epidemiology, Pathophysiology

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Clinical features

AIDS case definition

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Presentation

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Complications and co‐morbidities

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Disease course and prognosis

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Investigations

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Management

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Dermatological manifestations of HIV infection

Introduction

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Pruritus, xerosis and ichthyosis

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Pigmentary disorders

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Coagulopathies

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Inflammatory dermatoses

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• 297  Mitsuhashi Y, Hohl D. Dermatitis herpetiformis in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome‐related complex. J Am Acad Dermatol 1988;18:583.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
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• 304  Tarantini G, Zerboni R, Muratori S, et al. Lichen myxoedematosus in a patient with AIDS. Br J Dermatol 1996;134:1122–4.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 305  Azana JM, De Misa RF, Casado J, et al. Papular mucinosis associated with human‐immunodeficiency‐virus infection. Int J Dermatol 1996;35:652–4.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
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• 308  Daudén E, Martin R, Feal C, et al. Eccrine ductal mucinosis in a human immunodeficiency virus‐positive patient with probable scabies. Br J Dermatol 2000;143:1335–6.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
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• 311  Friedler S, Parisi MT, Waldo E, et al. Atypical cutaneous lymphoproliferative disorder in patients with HIV infection. Int J Dermatol 1999;38:111–18.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
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• 314  Fernández‐Morano T, Aguilar‐Bernier M, Del Boz J, Fúnez‐Liébana R. Cutaneous CD8+ T‐cell infiltrates associated with human immunodeficiency virus. Actas Dermo‐sifiliográficas 2012;103(7):638–40.Cross Ref link
• 315  Pitamber HV, Grayson W. Five cases of cutaneous Rosai–Dorfman disease. Clin Exp Dermatol 2003;28:17–21.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
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• 317  Saez‐de‐Ocariz M, Duran‐McKinster C, Orozo‐Covarrubias L, Ruiz‐Maldonado R. Dermatitis artefacta in a teenager after awareness of his HIV‐positive diagnosis. Clin Exp Dermatol 2005;30:92–3.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

Erythroderma

• 318  Morar N, Dlova N, Gupta AK, et al. Erythroderma: a comparison between HIV positive and negative patients. Int J Dermatol 1999;38:895–900.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 319  Bunker CB. Male Genital Skin Disease. London: Saunders, 2004.
• 320  Carr ND, Mercey D, Slack WW. Non‐condylomatous perianal skin disease in homosexual men. Br J Surg 1989;76:1064–6.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 321  Denis BJ, May T, Bigard MA, Canton P. Anal and perianal lesions in symptomatic HIV infections. Prospective study of a series of 190 patients. Gastroenterol Clin Biol 1992;16:148–54.Pubmed link
• 322  Yuhan R, De Orsay CI, Pino A, et al. Anorectal disease in HIV‐infected patients. Dis Colon Rectum 1998;41:1367–70.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

Seborrhoeic dermatitis

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• 324  Schechtman RC, Midgley G, Hay RJ. HIV disease and Malassezia yeasts: a quantitative study of patients presenting with seborrhoeic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 1995;133:694–8.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 325  Pechère M, Saurat J‐H. Malassezia yeast density in HIV‐positive individuals. Br J Dermatol 1997;136:138–9.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 326  Wikler JR, Nieboer C, Willemze R. Quantitiative skin cultures of Pityrosporum yeasts in patients seropositive for the human immunodeficiency virus with and without seborrheic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 1992;27:37–9.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 327  Coldiron BM, Bergstresser PR. Prevalence and spectrum of skin disease in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Arch Dermatol 1989;125:357–61.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 328  Groisser D, Bottone EJ, Lebwohl M. Association of Pityrosporum orbiculare (Malassezia furfur) with seborrhoeic dermatitis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). J Am Acad Dermatol 1989;20:770–3.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
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• 330  Vidal C, Girard P‐M, Dompmartin D, et al. Seborrhoeic dermatitis and HIV infection: qualitative analysis of skin surface lipids in men seropositive and seronegative for HIV. J Am Acad Dermatol 1990;23:1106–10.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
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• 332  Kaplan MH, Sadick N, McNutt NS, et al. Dermatologic findings and manifestations of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). J Am Acad Dermatol 1987;16:485–506.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 333  Duvic M. Papulosquamous disorders associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Dermatol Clin 1991;9:523–30.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 334  Hira SK, Wadhawan D, Kamanga J, et al. Cutaneous manifestations of human immuno‐deficiency virus in Lusaka, Zambia. J Am Acad Dermatol 1988;19:451–7.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 335  Soeprono FF, Schinella RA, Cockerell CJ, Comite SL. Seborrhoeic‐like dermatitis of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Am Acad Dermatol 1986;14:242–8.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 336  De Moraes AP, de Arruda EA, Vitoriano MA, et al. An open‐label efficacy pilot study with pimecrolimus cream 1% in adults with facial seborrhoeic dermatitis infected with HIV. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2007;21:596–601.Pubmed link

Atopic dermatitis

• 337  Prose NS. Cutaneous manifestations of HIV infection in children. Dermatol Clin 1991;9:543–50.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 338  Ball LM, Harper JI. Atopic eczema in HIV seropositive haemophiliacs. Lancet 1987;ii:627–8.Cross Ref link
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• 340  Bowser CS, Kaye J, Joks RO, et al. IgE and atopy in perinatally HIV‐infected children. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2007;18:298–303.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 341  Parkin JM, Eales LJ, Galazka AR, Pinching AJ. Atopic manifestations of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: response to recombinant interferon gamma. BMJ 1987;294:1185–6.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 342  Lin RY, Smith JK. IgE and human immunodeficiency virus infection. Ann Allergy 1988;61:269–72.Pubmed link
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• 344  Cockerell CJ. Non‐infectious inflammatory skin diseases in HIV‐infected individuals. Dermatol Clin 1991;9:531–42.Pubmed link
• 345  Ring J, Froschl M, Brunner R, Braun‐Falco O. LAV/HTLV III infection and atopy: serum IgE and specific IgE antibodies to environmental allergens. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1986;66:530–2.
• 346  Magnan A, Vervloet D. Le SIDA: un modèle pour l'étude de l'atopie? Rev Mal Respir 1995;12:177–83.Pubmed link
• 347  Nissen D, Nolte HP, Ermin H, et al. Evaluation of IgE‐sensitization to fungi in HIV postitive patients with eczematous skin reactions. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1999;83:153–9.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

Psoriasis

• 348  Duvic M. Papulosquamous disorders associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Dermatol Clin 1991;9:523–30.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 349  Mallon E, Bunker CB. HIV‐associated psoriasis. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2000;14:239–46.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 350  Colebunders R, Blot K, Meriens V, Dock P. Psoriasis regression in terminal AIDS. Lancet 1992;339:1110.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 351  Porras B, Costner M, Friedman‐Kien AE, Cockerell CJ. Update on cutaneous manifestations of HIV infection. Med Clin North Am 1998;82:1033–80.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 352  Finkelstein M, Berman B. HIV and AIDS in inpatient dermatology. Approach to the consultation. Dermatol Clin 2000;18:509–20.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 353  Namazi MR. Paradoxical exacerbation of psoriasis in AIDS: proposed explanations including the potential roles of substance P and Gram‐negative bacteria. Autoimmunity 2004;37:67–71.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 354  Morar N, Willis‐Owen SA, Maurer T, Bunker CB. HIV associated psoriasis: pathogenesis, clinical features and management. Lancet Inf Dis 2010;10:470‐8.Cross Ref link
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• 356  Mallon E, Young D, Bunce M, et al. HLA‐Cw*0602 and HIV associated psoriasis. Br J Dermatol 1998;139:527–33.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 357  Mallon E, Bunce M, Savoie H, et al. HLA‐C and guttate psoriasis. Br J Dermatol 2000;143:1177–82.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 358  Ranki A, Lauharanta J, Kanerva L. Effect of etretinate on the distribution of Langerhans cells and T lymphocytes in psoriatic skin. Arch Dermatol Res 1984;276:102–4.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 359  Kalter DC, Gendelman HE, Meltzer MS. Monocytes, dendritic cells, and Langerhans cells in immunodeficiency virus infection. Dermatol Clin 1991;9:415–28.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 360  Van Neer F, Zemelman V, Cerio R, et al. The role of factor XIIIa‐positive dermal dendrocytes in HIV‐1‐positive psoriatics. Br J Dermatol 1993;128:29–33.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 361  Zemelman V, Van Neer F, Roberts N, et al. Epidermal Langerhans cells, HIV‐1 infection and psoriasis. Br J Dermatol 1994;130:307–11.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 362  Kopp JB, Rooney JF, Wohlenberg C, et al. Cutaneous disorders and viral gene expression in HIV‐1 transgenic mice. AIDS Res Hum Retrovirus 1993;9:267–75.Cross Ref link
• 363  Chen H, Hayashi G, Lai OY, et al. Psoriasis patients are enriched for genetic variants that protect against HIV‐1 disease. PLOS Genet 2010;8(2):e1002514.Cross Ref link
• 364  Williams HC, Du Vivier AW. Etretinate and AIDS‐related Reiter's disease. Br J Dermatol 1991;124:389–92.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 365  Blanche P. Acitretin and AIDS‐related Reiter's disease. Clin Exp Rheumatol 1999;17:105–6.Pubmed link
• 366  Smith KJ, Skelton HG, Angritt P. Changes of verruciform xanthoma in an HIV‐1 patient wih diffuse psoriasiform skin disease. Am J Dermatol 1995;17:185–8.Cross Ref link
• 367  Menon K, Van Voorhees A, Bebo BF, et al. Psoriasis in patients with HIV infection: from the Medical Board of the National Psoriasis Foundation. J Am Acad Dermatol 2010;62:291–9.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 368  Vano‐Galvan S, Jaen P. Severe psoriasis due to cessation of antiretroviral therapy in a patient with human immunodeficiency virus. Isr Med Assoc J 2008;10(7):557–8.Pubmed link
• 369  Ranki A, Puska P, Mattinen S, et al. Effect of PUVA on immunologic and virologic findings in HIV‐infected patients. J Am Acad Dermatol 1991;24:404–10.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 370  Breuer‐McHam J, Marshall G, Adu‐Oppong A, et al. Alterations in HIV expression in AIDS patients with psoriasis and pruritus treated with phototherapy. J Am Acad Dermatol 1999;40:48–60.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 371  Akaraphanth R, Lim HW. HIV, UV and immunosuppression. Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed 1999;15:28–31.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 372  Houpt KR, Beer JZ, Horn TD, et al. Ultraviolet therapy of HIV‐infected individuals: a panel discussion. Semin Cutan Med Surg 1997;16:241–5.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 373  Horn TD, Morison WL, Farzadegan H, et al. Effects of psoralens plus UVA radiation (PUVA) on HIV‐1 in human beings: a pilot study. J Am Acad Dermatol 1994;31:735–40.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 374  Morison WL. PUVA therapy is preferable to UVB phototherapy in the management of HIV‐associated dermatoses. Photochem Photobiol 1996;64:267–8.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 375  Tourne L, Dures P, Van Vooren JP, et al. Alleviation of HIV‐associated psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis with cyclosporine. J Am Acad Dermatol 1997;37:501–2.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 376  Allen BR. Use of cyclosporin for psoriasis in HIV‐positive patient. Lancet 1992;339:686.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 377  Stashower ME, Yeager JK, Smith KJ, et al. Cimetidine as therapy for treatment‐resistant psoriasis in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Dermatol 1993;129:848–50.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 378  Smith KJ, Decker C, Yeager J, Skelton HG, Baskin S. Therapeutic efficacy of carbamazepine in a HIV‐1‐positive patient with psoriatic erythroderma. J Am Acad Dermatol 1997;37:851–4.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 379  Berthelot P, Guglielminotti C, Fresard A, et al. Dramatic cutaneous psoriasis improvement in a patient with the human immunodeficiency virus treated with 2,3‐dideoxycytidine and ritonavir. Arch Dermatol 1997;133:531.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 380  Fischer T, Schworer H, Vente C, et al. Clinical improvement of HIV‐associated psoriasis parallels a reduction of HIV viral load induced by effective antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 1999;13:628–9.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 381  Aboulafia DM, Bundow D, Wilske K, Ochs UL. Etanercept for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus associated psoriatic arthritis. May Clin Proc 2000;75:1093–8.Cross Ref link
• 382  Sellam J, Bouvard B, Masson C, et al. Use of infliximab to treat psoriatic arthritis in HIV‐positive patients. Joint Bone Spine 2007;74:197–200.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 383  Dichmann S, Mrowietz U, Schopf E, Norgauer J. Humanized monoclonal anti‐CD2 antibody as a novel therapeutic option in HIV‐associated psoriatic erythroderma. J Am Acad Dermatol 2002;47:635–6.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

Eosinophilic folliculitis

• 384  Ferrandiz C, Ribera M, Barranco JC, et al. Eosinophilic pustular folliculitis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Int J Dermatol 1992;31:193–5.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 385  Fearfield LA, Rowe A, Francis N, et al. Itchy folliculitis and human immunodeficiency virus infection: clinicopathological and immunological features, pathogenesis and treatment. Br J Dermatol 1999;141:3–11.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 386  Teofoli P, Barbieri C, Pallotta S, et al. Pruritic eosinophilic papular eruption revealing HIV infection. Eur J Dermatol 2002;12:600–2.Pubmed link
• 387  Toutous‐Trellu L, Abraham S, Pechere M, et al. Topical tacrolimus for effective treatment of eosinophilic folliculitis associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Arch Dermatol 2005;141(10):1203–8.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 388  Budavari JM, Grayson W. Papular follicular eruptions in human immunodeficiency virus‐positive patients in South Africa. Int J Dermatol 2007;46:706–10.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 389  Afonso JPJM, Tomimori J, Michalan, NS et al. Pruritic papular eruption and eosinophilic folliculitis associated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection: a histopathological and immunohistochemical comparative study. J Am Acad Dermatol 2012;67:269–75.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 390  Amerio P, Verdolini R, Proietto G, et al. Role of Th2 cytokines, RANTES and eotaxin in AIDS‐associated eosinophilic folliculitis. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 2001;81:92–5.Cross Ref link
• 391  Aires JM, Rosatelli JB, de Castro Figueiredo JF, Roselino AM. Cytokines in the pruritic papular eruption of HIV. Int J Dermatol 2000;39:903–6.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 392  Yokobayashi H, Sugaya M, Miyagaki T, et al. Analysis of serum chemokine levels in patients with HIV‐associated eosinophilic folliculitis. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2013;27:e212–6.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 393  Roos TC, Albrecht H. Foscarnet‐associated eosinophilic folliculitis in a patient with AIDS. J Am Acad Dermatol 2001;44:546–7.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 394  Vin‐Christian K, Epstein JH, Maurer TA, et al. Photosensitivity in HIV‐infected individuals. J Dermatol 2000;27:361–9.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 395  Holmes RB, Martins C, Horn T. The histopathology of folliculitis in HIV‐infected patients. J Cutan Pathol 2002;29:93–5.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 396  Costner M, Cockerell CJ. The changing spectrum of the cutaneous manifestations of HIV disease. Arch Dermatol 1998;134:1290.Pubmed link
• 397  Rajendran PM, Dolev JC, Heaphy MR, Jr, Maurer T. Eosinophilic folliculitis before and after the introduction of antiretroviral therapy. Arch Dermatol 2005;141:1227–31.Pubmed link
• 398  Kuwano Y, Watanabe R, Fujimoto M, et al. Treatment of HIV‐associated eosinophilic pustular folliculitis with narrow‐band UVB. Int J Dermatol 2006;45:1265–7.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 399  Harris DW, Ostlere L, Buckley C et al. Eosinophilic pustular folliculitis in an HIV‐positive man: response to cetirizine. Br J Dermatol 1992;126:392–4.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 400  Bunker CB. Dermatological problems in HIV and AIDS. In: Miller A, ed. Medical Management of HIV and AIDS. London: Springer, 1996.
• 401  Downs AM, Lear JT, Oxley JD, Kennedy CT. AIDS associated eosinophilic folliculitis which responded to both high dose co‐trimoxazole and low dose isotretinoin. Sex Transm Infect 1998;74:229–30.Pubmed link
• 402  Finkelstein M, Berman B. HIV and AIDS in inpatient dermatology. Approach to the consultation. Dermatol Clin 2000;18:509–20.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 403  Toutous‐Trellu L, Abraham S, Pechère M, et al. Topical tacrolimus for effective treatment of eosinophilic folliculitis associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Arch Dermatol 2005;141:1203–8.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
• 404  Maurer TA. Dermatologic manifestations of HIV infection. Top HIV Med 2005;13:149–54.Pubmed link
• 405  Nerv SJ, Scwartz RA, Dmochowski M. Eosinophilic pustular folliculitis: a 40 year retrospect. J Am Acad Dermatol 2006;55:285–9.Cross Ref linkPubmed link