Introduction, Biopsy of the skin

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  • 6  Lawrence C. An Introduction to Dermatological Surgery, 2nd edn. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 2002.
  • 7  An KP, Ratner D. Surgical management of cutaneous malignancies. Clin Dermatol 2001;19:305–20. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 8  Edlich RF, Becker DG, Long WB, et al. Excisional biopsy of skin tumors. J Long Term Eff Med Implants 2004;14:201–14. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 9  Cazes A, Prost Squarcioni C, Bodemer C, et al. Histopathologic cutaneous modifications after the use of EMLA cream, a diagnostic pitfall: review of 13 cases. Arch Dermatol 2007;143:1074–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 10  Hoss DM, Gross EG, Grant‐Kels JM. Histopathology of an adverse reaction to a eutectic mixture of the local anesthetic lidocaine and prilocaine. J Cutan Pathol 1999;26:100–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 11  Zuber TJ. Punch biopsy of the skin. Am Fam Physician 2002;65:1155–8, 1161–2, 1164. Pubmed link
  • 12  Sheridan AT, Dawber RP. Curettage, electrosurgery and skin cancer. Australas J Dermatol 2000;41:19–30. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 13  Goldman G. The current status of curettage and electrodesiccation. Dermatol Clin 2002;20:569–78. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 14  Kuwahara RT, Craig SR, Amonette R. More on Monsel's solution. Dermatol Surg 2000;26:979–80. Cross Ref link
  • 15  Park HK, Leonard DD, Arrington JH, et al. Recurrent melanocytic nevi: clinical and histologic review of 175 cases. J Am Acad Dermatol 1987;17:285–92. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 16  Popkin GL, Gibbs RC. Surgical gems: another look at the skin hook. J Dermatol Surg Oncol 1978;4:366–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 17  Bancroft JD, Gamble M, eds. Theory and Practice of Histological Techniques, 5th edn. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 2001.
  • 18  Michel B, Milner Y, David K. Preservation of tissue fixed immunoglobulins in skin biopsies of patients with lupus erythematosus and bullous diseases: preliminary report. J Invest Dermatol 1973;59:449–52. Cross Ref link
  • 19  Skeete MVH, Black MM. Evaluation of special liquid fixative for direct immunofluorescence. Clin Exp Dermatol 1977;2:49–56. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 20  Vaughan Jones SA, Salas J, McGrath JA, et al. A retrospective analysis of tissue‐fixed immunoreactants from skin biopsies maintained in Michel's medium. Dermatology 1994;189(Suppl. 1):131–2. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 21  Vaughan Jones SA, Palmer I, Bhogal BS, et al. The use of Michel's transport medium for immunofluorescence and immunoelectron microscopy in autoimmune bullous diseases. J Cutan Pathol 1995;22:365–70. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 22  Woollons A, Holmes GJ, Gratian MJ, et al. Michel's medium: a potential alternative to cryoprotection for tissue transport in the investigation of genetic skin diseases. Clin Exp Dermatol 1999;24:487–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 23  Vodegel RM, de Jong MC, Meijer HJ, et al. Enhanced diagnostic immunofluorescence using biopsies transported in saline. BMC Dermatol 2004;4:10. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Laboratory methods

    Specimen preparation, Routine tissue processing, Routine staining techniques, including histochemistry

    • 24  Mondragon G, Nygaard F. Routine and special procedures for processing biopsy specimens of lesions suspected to be malignant melanomas. Am J Dermatopathol 1981;3:265–72. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 25  Templeton SF, Santa Cruz DJ, Salomon AR. Alopecia: histologic diagnosis by transverse sections. Semin Diagn Pathol 1996;13:2–18. Pubmed link
    • 26  Sperling LC. Scarring alopecia and the dermatopathologist. J Cutan Pathol 2001;28:333–42. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 27  Elston DM, Ferringer T, Dalton S, et al. A comparison of vertical versus transverse sections in the evaluation of alopecia biopsy specimens. J Am Acad Dermatol 2005;53:267–72. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 28  Madani S, Shapiro J. The scalp biopsy: making it more efficient. Dermatol Surg 1999;25:537–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 29  Del Rosario RN, Barr RJ, Graham BS, et al. Exogenous and endogenous cutaneous anomalies and curiosities. Am J Dermatopathol 2005;27:259–67. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 30  Bezahler GH. Microwave fixation of biopsy specimens. Am J Dermatopathol 1989;11:295. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 31  Boon ME, Kok LP. Microwave Cookbook of Pathology. Leiden: Coulomb Press, 1987.
    • 32  Bancroft JD, Gamble M, eds. Theory and Practice of Histological Techniques, 5th edn. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 2001.
    • 33  Luna LG. Histological Procedures and Special Stains: a Practical Guide. Gaithersburg, MD: Center for Histotechnology Training, 1988.
    • 34  Pearse AGE. Histochemistry, Theoretical and Applied, 3rd edn. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1972.
    • 35  Al‐Amari A, Chatrath V, Bhawan J, et al. The periodic acid–Schiff stain in diagnosing tinea: should it be used routinely in inflammatory skin diseases? J Cutan Pathol 2003;30:611–15. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 36  Pinkus H, Hunter R. Simplified acid orcein and Giemsa technique for routine staining of skin sections. Arch Dermatol 1960;82:699–700. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 37  Leder LD. The chloracetate esterase reaction. Am J Dermatopathol 1979;1:39–42. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 38  Yanagihara M, Mehregan AM, Mehregan DR. Staining of amyloid with cotton dyes. Arch Dermatol 1984;120:1184–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 39  Tang YW, Procop GW, Zheng X, et al. Histologic parameters predictive of mycobacterial infection. Am J Clin Pathol 1998;109:331–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 40  Beard J, Benson P, Skillman L. Rapid diagnosis of coccidioidomycosis with a DNA probe to ribosomal RNA. Arch Dermatol 1993;129:1589–93. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 41  Nagao K, Ota T, Tanikawa A, et al. Genetic identification and detection of human pathogenic Rhizopus species, a major mucormycosis agent, by multiplex PCR based on internal transcribed spacer region of rRNA gene. J Dermatol Sci 2005;39:23–31. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 42  Behorf W, Springer E, Bräuninger W, et al. PCR‐testing for Treponema pallidum in paraffin‐embedded skin biopsies: test design and impact on the diagnosis of syphilis. J Clin Pathol 2008;61:390–5. Pubmed link
    • 43  Buffet M, Grange PA, Gerhardt P, et al. Diagnosing Treponema pallidum in secondary syphilis by PCR and immunohistochemistry. J Invest Dermatol 2007;127:2345–50. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 44  Eisendle K, Grabner T, Zelger B. Focus floating microscopy: ‘gold standard’ for cutaneous borreliosis? Am J Clin Pathol 2007;127:213–22. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 45  Wienecke R, Neubert U, Volkenandt M. Molecular detection of Borrelia burgdorferi in formalin‐fixed paraffin‐embedded lesions of Lyme disease. J Cutan Pathol 1993;20:385–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 46  Mouritsen CL, Litwin CM, Maiese RL, et al. Rapid polymerase chain reaction‐based detection of the causative agent of cat‐scratch disease (Bartonella henselae) in formalin‐fixed paraffin‐embedded samples. Hum Pathol 1997;28:820–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 47  Reithinger R, Dujardin JC. Molecular diagnosis of leishmaniasis: current status and future applications. J Clin Microbiol 2007;45:21–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 48  Safaei A, Motazedian MH, Vasei M. Polymerase chain reaction for diagnosis of cutaneous leishmaniasis in histologically positive, suspicious and negative skin biopsies. Dermatology 2002;205:18–24. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 49  Pagliusi SR, Garland SM. International standard reagents for HPV infection. Dis Markers 2007;23:283–96. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 50  Nashass G, Goldstein B, Zhu W, et al. Comparison of Tzanck smear, viral cultures and DNA diagnostic methods in detection of herpes simplex and varicella‐zoster infection. JAMA 1992;268:2541–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 51  Tan SH, Tan BH, Goh CL, et al. Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA using polymerase chain reaction in cutaneous tuberculosis and tuberculids. Int J Dermatol 1999;38:122–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 52  Quiros E, Maroto MC, Bettinardi A, et al. Diagnosis of cutaneous tuberculosis in biopsy specimens by PCR and Southern blotting. J Clin Pathol 1996;49:889–91. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 53  Swick BL. Polymerase chain reaction‐based molecular diagnosis of cutaneous infections in dermatgopathology. Semin Cutan Med Surg 2012;31:241–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 54  Li JY, Lo ST, Ng CS. Molecular detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in tissues showing granulomatous inflammation without demonstrable acid‐fast bacilli. Diagn Mol Pathol 2000;9:67–74. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 55  Baselga E, Margall N, Barnadas MA, et al. Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA in lobular granulomatous panniculitis. Arch Dermatol 1997;133:457–62. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 56  Wiley EL, Beck B, Freeman RG. Reactivity of fungal organisms in tissue sections using antimycobacterial antibodies. J Cutan Pathol 1991;18:204–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 57  Kutzner H, Argenyi ZB, Requena L, et al. A new application of BCG antibody for rapid screening of various tissue organisms. J Am Acad Dermatol 1998;38:56–60. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 58  Byrd J, Mehregan DR, Mehregan DA. Utility of antibacillus Calmette‐Guerin antibodies as a screen for organisms in sporotrichoid infections. J Am Acad Dermatol 2001;44:261–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 59  Hoang MP, High WA, Molberg KH. Secondary syphilis: a histologic and immunohistochemical evaluation. J Cutan Pathol 2004;31:595–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 60  Eisendle K, Grabner T, Zelger B. Focus floating microscopy: “gold standard” for cutaneous borreliosis? Am J Clin Pathol 2007;127:213–22. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 61  Weiss LM, Chen YY. EBER in situ hybridization for Epstein‐Barr virus. Methods Mol Biol 2013;999:223–30. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 62  Wititsuwannakul J, Klump VR, Jr, McNiff JM, et al. Detecting HPV in cutaneous lesions using anti‐HPV antibody immunohistochemistry. Am J Dermatopathol 2013;35:327–31. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

    Immunopathology

      Immunofluorescence methods

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      • 64  Johnson GD, Nogueira Araujo GM de C. A simple method of reducing the fading in immunofluorescence during microscopy. J Immunol Methods 1981;43:349–50. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 65  Vaughan Jones SA, Salas J, McGrath JA, et al. A retrospective analysis of tissue‐fixed immunoreactants from skin biopsies maintained in Michel's medium. ­Dermatol 1994;189(Suppl. 1):131. Cross Ref link
      • 66  Jenkins RE, Bhogal BS, Willsteed E, et al. Artefacts in immunofluorescence microscopy: a potent source of diagnostic confusion. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 1992;1:171–3. Cross Ref link
      • 67  Sabolinski ML, Beutner EH, Krasny S, et al. Substrate specificity of anti‐epithelial antibodies of pemphigus vulgaris and pemphigus foliaceus sera in immunofluorescence tests on monkey and guinea pig esophagus sections. J Invest Dermatol 1987;88:545–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 68  Harman KE, Gratian M, Bhogal BS, et al. The use of two substrates to improve the sensitivity of indirect immunofluorescence in the diagnosis of pemphigus. Br J Dermatol 2000;142:1135–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 69  Helou J, Allbritton J, Anhalt GJ. Accuracy of indirect immunofluorescence testing in the diagnosis of paraneoplastic pemphigus. J Am Acad Dermatol 1995;32:441. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 70  Joly P, Richard C, Gilbert D, et al. Sensitivity and specificity of clinical, histological, and immunologic features in the diagnosis of paraneoplastic pemphigus. J Am Acad Dermatol 2000;43:619–26. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 71  Willsteed EM, Bhogal BS, Das A, et al. An ultrastructural comparison of dermo‐epidermal separation techniques. J Cutan Pathol 1990;18:8–12. Cross Ref link
      • 72  Gammon WR, Kowalewski C, Chorzelski TP, et al. Direct immunofluorescence studies of sodium chloride‐separated skin in the differential diagnosis of bullous pemphigoid and epidermolysis bullosa acquisita. J Am Acad Dermatol 1990;22:664–70. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 73  Matis WL, Anhalt GJ, Diaz LA, et al. Calcium enhances the sensitivity of immunofluorescence for pemphigus antibodies. J Invest Dermatol 1987;89:302–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 74  Amagai M, Ishii K, Hashimoto T, et al. Conformational epitopes of pemphigus antigens (Dsg1 and Dsg3) are calcium dependent and glycosylation independent. J Invest Dermatol 1995;105:243–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 75  Kelly SE, Cerio R, Bhogal BS, et al. The distribution of IgG subclasses in pemphigoid gestationis: PG factor is an IgG1 autoantibody. J Invest Dermatol 1989;92:695–698. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

      Immunoenzyme methods

      • 76  Hudson AR, Smoller BR. Immunohistochemistry in diagnostic dermatopathology. Dermatol Clin 1999;17:667–89. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 77  Schach CP, Smoller BR, Hudson AR, et al. Immunohistochemical stains in dermatopathology. J Am Acad Dermatol 2000;43:1094–100. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 78  DeLellis RA, Sternberger LA, Mann RB, et al. Immunoperoxidase techniques in diagnostic pathology. Am J Clin Pathol 1979;71:483–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 79  Krieg R, Haldhuber KJ, Oehring H. Novel chromogenic substrates with metal chelating properties for the histochemical detection of peroxidase activity, derived from 3‐amino‐9‐ethyl carbazole (AEC) and 3,6‐diamino‐9‐ethylcarbazole. Cell Mol Biol 2000;46:1191–212. Pubmed link
      • 80  Guesdon JL, Ternynck T, Avrameas S. The use of avidin–biotin interaction in immunoenzymatic techniques. J Histochem Cytochem 1979;27:1131–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

      Applications of immunopathology techniques

      • 81  Hudson AR, Smoller BR. Immunohistochemistry in diagnostic dermatopathology. Dermatol Clin 1999;17:667–89. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 82  Schach CP, Smoller BR, Hudson AR, et al. Immunohistochemical stains in dermatopathology. J Am Acad Dermatol 2000;43:1094–100. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 83  His ED, Yegappan S. Lymphoma immunophenotyping: a new era in paraffin‐section immunohistochemistry. Adv Anat Pathol 2001;8:218–39. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 84  George R, Kurian S, Jacob M, et al. Diagnostic evaluation of the lupus band test in discoid and systemic lupus erythematosus. Int J Dermatol 1995;35:170–3. Cross Ref link
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      • 86  Kelly SE, Wojnarowska F. The use of chemically split tissue in the detection of circulating anti‐basement zone antibodies in bullous pemphigoid and cicatricial pemphigoid. Br J Dermatol 1988;118:31–40. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 87  Kottke MD, Delva E, Kowalczyk AP. The desmosome: cell science lessons from human disease. J Cell Sci 2006;119:797–806. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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      • 89  Ordonez NG. Application of immunocytochemistry in the diagnosis of soft tissue sarcomas: a review and update. Adv Anat Pathol 1998;5:67–85. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 90  Moll R, Franke WW, Schulter DL, et al. The catalog of human cytokeratins: patterns of expression in normal epithelia, tumors and cultured cells. Cell 1982;31:11–24. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 91  Cooper D, Schermer A, Sun TT. Classification of human epithelia and their neoplasms using monoclonal antibodies to keratins: strategies, applications and limitations. Lab Invest 1985;52:243–56. Pubmed link
      • 92  Leder M, Patel J, Makin C, et al. An analysis of the sensitivity and specificity of the cytokeratin marker CAM 5.2 for epithelial tumors: results of a study of 203 sarcomas, 40 carcinomas and 28 malignant melanomas. Histopathology 1996;10:1315–24. Cross Ref link
      • 93  Moll I, Kuhn C, Moll R. Cytokeratin 20 is a general marker of cutaneous Merkel cells, while certain neuronal proteins are absent. J Invest Dermatol 1995;104:910–15. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 94  Chan JK, Suster S, Wenig BM, et al. Cytokeratin 20 immunoreactivity distinguishes Merkel cell (primary cutaneous neuroendocrine) carcinomas and salivary gland small cell carcinomas from small cell carcinomas of various sites. Am J Surg Pathol 1997;21:226–34. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 95  Smith KJ, Tuur S, Corvette D, et al. Cytokeratin 7 staining in mammary and extramammary Paget's disease. Mod Pathol 1996;10:1069–74.
      • 96  Williamson JD, Colome MI, Sahin A, et al. Pagetoid Bowen disease: a report of 2 cases that express cytokeratin 7. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2000;124:427–30. Pubmed link
      • 97  Mai KT, Alhalouly T, Landry D, et al. Pagetoid variant of actinic keratosis with or without squamous cell carcinoma of sun‐exposed skin: a lesion simulating extramamary Paget's disease. Histopathology 2002;41:331–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 98  Al‐Abbadi MA, Almasri NM, Al‐Quran S, et al. Cytokeratin and epithelial membrane expression in angiosarcoma: an immunohistochemical study of 33 cases. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2007;131:288–92. Pubmed link
      • 99  Srivastava A, Rosenberg AE, Selig M, et al. Keratin‐positive Ewing's sarcoma: an ultrastructural study of 12 cases. Int J Surg Pathol 2005;13:43–50. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 100  Humble SD, Prieto VG, Horenstein MG. Cytokeratin 7 and 20 expression in epithelioid sarcoma. J Cutan Pathol 2003;30:242–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 101  Iwata J, Fletcher CD. Immunohistochemical detection of cytokeratin and epithelial membrane antigen in leiomyosarcoma: a systematic study of 100 cases. Pathol Int 2000;50:7–14. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 102  Heyderman E, Steele K, Ormerod MG. A new antigen on the epithelial membrane: its immunoperoxidase localisation on normal and neoplastic tissue. J Clin Pathol 1979;32:35–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 103  Chittal SM, Al Saati T, Delsol G. Epithelial membrane antigen in hematolymphoid neoplasms: a review. Appl Immunohistochem 1997;5:203–15. Cross Ref link
      • 104  Metze D, Grunert F, Neumaier M, et al. Neoplasms with sweat gland differentiation expressed various glycoproteins of the carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) family. J Cutan Pathol 1996;23:1–11. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 105  Ostler DA, Prieto VG, Reed JA, et al. Adipophilin expression in sebaceous tumors and other cutaneous lesions with clear cell histology: an immunohistochemical study of 117 cases. Mod Pathol 2010;23:567–73. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 106  Vinores SA, Bonnin JM, Rubinstein LJ, et al. Immunohistochemical demonstration of neuron‐specific enolase in neoplasms of the CNS and other tumors. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1984;108:536–40. Pubmed link
      • 107  Llombart B, Monteagudo C, López‐Guerrero JA, et al. Clinicopathological and immunohistochemical analysis of 20 cases of Merkel cell carcinoma in search of prognostic markers. Histopathology 2005;46:622–34. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 108  Wiedenmann B, Franke WW, Kuhn C, et al. Synaptophysin: a marker protein for neuroendocrine cells and neoplasms. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1986;83:3500–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 109  Dunphy CH, DeMello DE, Gale GB. Pediatric CD56+ anaplastic large cell lymphoma: a review of the literature. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2006;130:1859–64. Pubmed link
      • 110  McCalomont TH. Paranuclear dots of neurofilaments reliably identify Merkel cell carcinoma. J Cutan Pathol 2010;37:821–3. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 111  Kahn HJ, Baumal R, Marks A. The value of immunohistochemical studies using antibody to S100 protein in dermatopathology. Int J Dermatol 1984;23:38–44. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 112  Loeffel SC, Gillespie GY, Mirmiran SA, et al. Cellular immunolocalization of S100 protein within fixed tissue sections by monoclonal antibodies. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1985;109:117–22. Pubmed link
      • 113  Nakajima T, Watanabe S, Sato Y, et al. An immunoperoxidase study of S‐100 protein distribution in normal and neoplastic tissues. Am J Surg Pathol 1982;6:715–27. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 114  Argenyi ZB, Cain C, Bromley C, et al. S‐100 protein negative malignant melanoma: fact or fiction? A light microscopic and immunohistochemical study. Am J Dermatopathol 1994;16:233–40. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 115  Smoller BR, McNutt NS, Hsu A. HMB‐45 recognizes stimulated melanocytes. J Cutan Pathol 1989;16:49–53. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 116  Wick MR, Swanson PE, Rocamora A. Recognition of malignant melanoma by monoclonal antibody HMB‐45: an immunohistochemical study of 200 paraffin‐embedded cutaneous tumours. J Cutan Pathol 1988;15:201–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 117  Ordonez NG, Ji XL, Hickey RC. A comparison of HMB‐45 monoclonal antibody and S‐100 protein in the immunohistochemical diagnosis of melanoma. Am J Clin Pathol 1998;90:385–90. Cross Ref link
      • 118  Jungbluth AA, Busam KJ, Gerald WL, et al. A103, an anti Melan‐A monoclonal antibody for the detection of malignant melanoma in paraffin‐embedded tissues. Am J Surg Pathol 1998;22:595–602. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 119  Busam KJ, Jungbluth AA. Melan‐A, a new melanocytic differentiation marker. Adv Anat Pathol 1999;6:12–18. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 120  El Shabrawi‐Caelen L, Kerl H, Cerroni L. Melan‐A: not a helpful marker in distinction between melanoma in situ on sun‐damaged skin and pigmented actinic keratosis. Am J Dermatopathol 2004;26:364–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 121  Bhawan J. Mel‐5: a novel antibody for differential diagnosis of epidermal pigmented lesions of the skin in paraffin‐embedded sections. Melanoma Res 1997;7:43–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 122  King R, Googe PB, Weilbaecher KN, et al. Microphthalmia transcription factor expression in cutaneous benign, malignant melanocytic and nonmelanocytic tumors. Am J Surg Pathol 2001;25:51–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 123  Busam KJ, Iversen K, Coplan KC, et al. Analysis of microphthalmia transcription factor expression in normal tissues and tumors, and comparison of its expression with S‐100 protein, gp100, and tyrosinase in desmoplastic malignant melanoma. Am J Surg Pathol 2001;25:197–204. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 124  Palla B, Su A, Binder S, et al. SOX10 expression distinguishes desmoplastic melanoma from its histologic mimics. Am J Dermatopathol 2013;35:576–81. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 125  Shidham VB, Oi D, Rao RN, et al. Improved immunohistochemical evaluation of micrometastasis in sentinel lymph nodes with ‘MCW melanoma cocktail’ – a mixture of monoclonal antibodies to Mart‐1, Melan‐A and tyrosinase. BMC Cancer 2003;3:15. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 126  Azumi N, Battifora H. The distribution of vimentin and keratin in epithelial and nonepithelial neoplasms: a comparative immunohistochemical study on formalin‐ and alcohol‐fixed tumors. Am J Clin Pathol 1987;88:286–96. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 127  Ngai J, Capetanari YG, Lazarides E. Expression of the genes coding for the intermediate filament proteins vimentin and desmin. Ann NY Acad Sci 1985;455:144–57. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 128  Truong LD, Rangdaeng S, Cagle P, et al. The diagnostic utility of desmin: a study of 584 cases and review of the literature. Am J Clin Pathol 1990;93:305–14. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 129  Ordonez NG. Antidesmin antibodies: their use in diagnostic pathology. Am J Clin Pathol 1990;93:430–1. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 130  Gown AM, Vogel AM, Gordon D. A smooth muscle specific monoclonal antibody recognizes smooth muscle actin isoenzymes. J Cell Biol 1985;100:807–13. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 131  Tsukada T, McNutt MA, Ross R, et al. HHF35, a muscle specific monoclonal antibody, 2: reactivity in normal, reactive, and neoplastic human tissues. Am J Pathol 1987;127:389–402. Pubmed link
      • 132  Azumi N, Ben Ezra J, Battifora H. Immunophenotypic diagnosis of leiomyosarcomas and rhabdomyosarcomas with monoclonal antibodies to muscle specific actin (MSA) and desmin in formalin fixed tissue. Mod Pathol 1998;1:469–74.
      • 133  Pérez‐Montiel MD, Plaza JA, Domínguez‐Malagón H, et al. Differential expression of smooth muscle myosin, smooth muscle actin, h‐caldesmon, and calponin in the diagnosis of myofibroblastic and smooth muscle lesions of skin and soft tissue. Am J Dermatopathol 2006;28:105–11. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 134  Ceballos KM, Nielsen GP, Selig MK, et al. Is anti h‐caldesmon useful for distinguishing smooth muscle and myofibroblastic tumors? An immunohistochemical study. Am J Clin Pathol 2000;114:746–53. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 135  Watanabe K, Kusakabe T, Hoshi N, et al. h‐Caldesmon in leiomyosarcoma and tumors with smooth muscle cell‐like differentiation: its specific expression in the smooth muscle cell tumor. Hum Pathol 1999;30:392–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 136  Van de Rijn Rouse RV. CD34: a review. Appl Immunohistochem 1994;2:71–80.
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      Other diagnostic methods

        Viral disease techniques

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        Immunogenotyping

        • 203  LeBoit PE, Parslow TG. Gene rearrangements in lymphoma. Am J Dermatopathol 1987;9:212–18. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
        • 204  Weiss LM, Woods GS, Hu E, et al. Detection of clonal T‐cell receptor gene rearrangements in the peripheral blood of patients with mycosis fungoides/Sézary syndrome. J Invest Dermatol 1989;92:601–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
        • 205  Weiss LM, Wood GS, Nickoloff BJ, et al. Gene rearrangement studies in lymphoproliferative disorders of skin. In: Callen JP, Dahl MV, Golitz LE, et al., eds. Advances in Dermatology, Vol. 3. Chicago: Year Book Medical, 1988:141–60. Pubmed link
        • 206  Wood GS. T‐cell receptor and immunoglobulin gene rearrangements in diagnosing skin disease. Arch Dermatol 2001;137:1503–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

        Artefacts

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        • 208  Olmstead PM, Lund HZ, Leonard DD. Monsel's solution: a histologic nuisance. J Am Acad Dermatol 1980;3:492–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
        • 209  Pinkus H. Stellate plant hair contaminant in the laboratory. Arch Dermatol 1969;100:96–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

        Approach to microscopic examination of tissue sections

        • 210  Ackerman AB Boer A, Bennin B, Gottlieb GG. Histologic Diagnosis of Inflammatory Skin Diseases, 3rd edn. New York: Ardor Scribendi, 2004.